Witherspoon asserts that the mother-child bond is the closest in Navajo kinship: "Mother and child are bound together by the most intense, the most diffuse, and the most enduring solidarity to be found in Navajo culture" (1975: 15). The guests and betrothed sit in prescribed places in the hogan, and a number of rituals are performed. (Haile qtd. "It is not just a remembrance or reenactment of mythical time, nor is the singer just 'identifying' with the gods. None of these variations seems to influence the real substance of the story dramatically. Members of subsistence residential units will share any slaughtered sheep with each other, thereby reaffirming their unity as a group and their individual commitment to the group. Witherspoon asserts that there are two levels of kinship: the "primary level," which includes the Mother-Child bond that Changing Woman epitomizes, and the husband-wife bond that Changing Woman and the Sun's relationship defines; and the "secondary level," which is less intense and includes the father-child relationship and the sibling-sibling relationship (19875: 35). Changing Woman is the mother of the Hero Twins, Monster Slayer and Born for Water. accumulation of property, insuring a long and happy The corn-husk cross on top of the cake is significant as well, for it provides "sacred orientation." abalone, and jet (jewels) while they followed her On the reservation, certain places are open to everyone, like timber or watering areas. Yellow corn is associated with females, a fact which is demonstrated in several ceremonies. When Changing Woman goes to the West, she finds four mountains that were identical to the four mountains in Hajiinei, the Emergence place. When the twins Monster Slayer and Born for Water needed help to say the monsters, they approached the Sun, their father, and asked for his aid. He ascended the mountain and at the tip, right when lightning flashed and a rainbow showered him with vibrant colors, did he find Changing Woman. Now on the top of Gobernador Knob, I am here. According to Zolbrod, she made the heads of the original six clans. Therefore, sheep who are not yet slaughtered represent the potential for further reinforcement of the group. Works Cited: " Changing Woman and the Hero Twins." [1897] 1998. This "static reality" is identifiable with the rigidly structured Navajo ceremonial life, which for the most part is male-dominated. Return Home. with their eyes whenever she moved her hands If the flock is well-fed and cared for, then the social dynamics of the unit will similarly be harmonious and productive. Sun's presence is implied, since he is believed to But the naay' can't be beaten alone. The Navajo. 1The term "Dine" can be subdivided into the Diyin Dine, or Holy People, and the nihok' dine'e, or earth surface people (Witherspoon 1977:96). Combining their sheep into one herd is the "most important cooperative enterprise of the unit" (72). rest periodically on mountain tops, which figure The man owns what his family gives him, and what he had saved for himself. There are Right at the end of the rainbow I am here. In fact, they reflect Dine kinship and social relationships (92). Return to The Sacred Mountains as a Hogan nihima' (our mother), they refer to the Sun as "nihitah' the amniotic fluidsoaked into the soil right there. The mountain soil bundle, also referred to as the "sacred medicine bundle," shares symbolic connotations with Changing Woman. with their eyes whenever she moved her hands The same language used to characterize her is used to describe other relationships and objects as well, such as the sacred mountain bundle. After the bundle is retrieved from the watery world, First Man reveals the items to the other diyinii: "When he opened it to show them there was a perfectly kernelled white shell corn ear, a perfectly kernelled turquoise ear of corn, a perfectly kernelled abalone ear of corn, and a perfectly kernelled jet ear of corn" (Wyman qtd. Therefore, the Navajo social structure is modeled on this view of the cosmos. University of Arizona Press. The mountain soil bundle, also referred to as the "sacred medicine bundle," shares symbolic connotations with Changing Woman. 2 For a classification of ceremonies, consult Reichard 1950: 314-337. 8 I question Witherspoon here; in all other sources it is "Born to" the mother's clan. It is organized around a head mother, a certain tract of land, and the sheep herd (72). Volume II. According to Zolbrod, she made the heads of the original six clans. Another major part of the Kinaald involves the girl running toward the east, which she does twice a day for the first day, and three times a day for the next three days. Combining their sheep into one herd is the "most important cooperative enterprise of the unit" (72). One might thus interpret her as an allegory of the seasons, but she is more, being related to the earth and vegetation. Witherspoon asserts that these terms have two broad definitions: a set of relationships that revolves around the act of giving birth; and a set of behavioral codes defined by "the generous giving of both physical and emotional sustenance" (94). In this section their symbolic implications will be explored in the larger framework of Dine subsistence and economics. Levi-Strauss, Claude, 1966. Volume II. Beck, Peggy, and Anna Lee Walters, eds., 1992. God, the yellow corn giving birth to another deity.' The majority of the ceremony takes place in the hogan belonging to the girl's family, which through the course of mythically significant chanting comes to symbolize the First Hogan of First Man and First Woman and the guests who attend the ceremony become the Holy People.6 Following this, the initiate is dressed in ceremonial garb resembling that which Changing Woman allegedly wore: a "special sash" and jewelry of turquoise and white shell. Kluckhohn, Clyde and Dorothea Leighton, 1974. Hogans are characterized by a rich tradition of symbolism. were to be (future) sheep. Moreover, she is credited with bestowing the Blessingway ceremony, the Kinaald, sheep, and corn upon humanity, thereby protecting not only Dine spiritual health, but basic subsistence as well. University of Chicago Press. 3 In Zolbrod's version, White Shell Woman and Changing Woman are sisters; some versions call her White Shell Woman instead of Changing Woman, other sources acknowledge that they are different names for the same deity. Woman and her Blessingway gave it to us. Routledge Books. are returned to diyinni in the form of offerings. As soon as children are old enough to help out with the herding, they are given sheep of their own to care for. (Farella 1984: 90) Mankind. accumulation of property, insuring a long and happy Reichard records a myth in which Talking God gives corn to Whiteshell Woman and her sister Turquoise woman, saying, "There is no better thing than this in the world, for it is the gift of life." greatly in creation. Just as Navajo refer to Changing Woman as The conception of the deities involved not only corn, but also water (in the fog) and the Sun. The symbolism of the color yellow has been studied by Newcomb, Fisher and Wheelwright, who assert that yellow is "the color of the female wind and of the ripened harvest and the soft autumnal rain" (qtd. 1). Volume II. does this and in return he is fed, but the corn meal She later appropriates the bundle for herself when she moves to the Sun's house in the West, where she creates the Dine and other objects of great importance to Dine livelihood (87). Language and Art in the Navajo Universe. The Changing Woman/Hero Twins myth begins with the birth of Changing Woman from a plant that grows on a hillside. Return to The Sacred Mountains as a Hogan Yellow corn is associated with females, a fact which is demonstrated in several ceremonies. A07 The Dark Wind (04-06) p. 135 Dine children address their father as an in-law, or shaadaani. As stated before, Changing Woman is the first and model mother. The alkaan's removal from the pit is symbolic of many things: birth, the growth of vegetation, and the emergence of the Holy People into the present world (Lincoln 1981:32). in Farella 1984: 79-80). 4 Other sources report that Changing Woman only made four original clans. Metaphorically, Changing Woman is the model mother which all human mothers strive to emulate. At the metaphysical level, Changing Woman is the alleged product of the union between Sa'ah Naaghaii (First Boy) who represents thought, and Bik'eh H-zh- (First Girl) who represents speech (Witherspoon 1977: 17). Structural Anthropology. K'e' terms, or the Dine descent system, contains six large categories: the mother's clan, father's clan, born for mother's clan8, born for father's clan, clan for which mother is born, and the clan for which father is born (95). With his brother, Xbalanque, he rids the pre-human world of all manner of villainous gods, including Seven Macaw, Zipacna, One Death, and Seven Death. While on one hand it similarly widens the circle of a Dine's obligations, that individual will be able to call upon the same relatives when needed. University of Chicago Press. As stated before, Dine refer to both sheep and corn as shim. After this, elders instruct the couple about the nuances of married life and everyone partakes in the wedding feast (Locke 1976: 23). Levi-Strauss, Claude, 1966. He denied any paternity and put the twins through a rigorous cycle of tests. Princeton UP. The Navajo world is stringently gendered, with male objects characterized by a "static reality," and females an "active reality" (Witherspoon 1977: 141). Witherspoon says, "at best, a father is a helpful friend, a good teacher, and a strong disciplinarian; at worst, he is a potential enemy, an undependable friend, or an unreliable ally" (1975: 34). identification with Changing Woman, as most dramatically The same language used to characterize her is used to describe other relationships and objects as well, such as the sacred mountain bundle. The Dine consider the hogan to be "a living entity, with the smokehole as its breathing hole; this is where prayers emerge and raise to the heavens" (Griffin-Pierce 1992: 92). The conception of the deities involved not only corn, but also water (in the fog) and the Sun. The mountain soil bundle, also referred to as the "sacred medicine bundle," shares symbolic connotations with Changing Woman. This relationship is partially defined by the father's distance from and assistance to his children, considerations manifested first in the Sun's first encounters with his children, the twins. Through an analysis of Changing Woman as described in Paul Zolbrod's version of the Navajo Creation Story, Dine bahane', the symbolic motifs inherent in her mythology can be isolated, identified, and applied to the larger holistic analysis of Changing Woman in Navajo culture. Just as Navajo refer to Changing Woman as Moreover, she bestowed several things upon mankind, such as certain ceremonies, that would protect humanity from evil forces. The symbolism of the color yellow has been studied by Newcomb, Fisher and Wheelwright, who assert that yellow is "the color of the female wind and of the ripened harvest and the soft autumnal rain" (qtd. Mythically, Sun is said to be corn's father and Lightning its mother (Reichard 1950: 27). Although the interior is always a contiguous whole, it is metaphorically divided by the four poles into the four cardinal directions: the south side is associated with things relating to subsistence, the West with social relations, the North for reverence,' and ceremonial objects, and the East is the door (Griffin-pierce 1992: 94). 1995The Night Chant, a Navaho Ceremony. Griffin-Pierce, Trudy, 1992. her hands and then) on the white shell, the turquoise, Another major part of the Kinaald involves the girl running toward the east, which she does twice a day for the first day, and three times a day for the next three days. Navajo Religion. (Haile qtd. The alkaan is baked in a large pit in the ground, into which the helpers pour the batter that the initiate mixes. Witherspoon, Gary, 1977. Here Changing Woman grew lonely and created the Navajo People from skin rubbed off various parts of her body. Hogans are characterized by a rich tradition of symbolism. The Symbolism of Corn: Changing Woman created the original clans by rubbing off pieces of her epidermis in a symbolic manner. It can Lauter, Paul. 8 I question Witherspoon here; in all other sources it is "Born to" the mother's clan. Around the time of the h-zh--j', the child is given a secret, or "war," name by his or her parents which is considered the child's property and is seldom used even by the child's family (24). Reichard, Gladys A, 1950. 3 In Zolbrod's version, White Shell Woman and Changing Woman are sisters; some versions call her White Shell Woman instead of Changing Woman, other sources acknowledge that they are different names for the same deity. The Kinaald puts the Navajo girl on the path to adulthood, which culminates in the wedding ceremony. Throughout the singing, the chief goal is the The hogan has its creation in Navajo Mythology, when First Man creates it upon emergence into this world. Mythically, Sun is said to be corn's father and Lightning its mother (Reichard 1950: 27). She is also the benevolent being who creates the first Navajo of the four original clans and corn and is therefore known for bringing fertility and regeneration into the world. A few steps remain after this, but most Dine consider the ceremony complete after the alkaan is distributed. Changing Woman gives birth to the Hero Twins called Monster Slayer and Child of the Waters, who together have many adventures in which they help to rid the world of much evil. University of Chicago Press. Witherspoon asserts, "Through rituals she bestows blessings on them and provides them with immunity from various dangerous things and protection from malevolent beings" (1977: 91). Witherspoon asserts that the mother-child bond is the closest in Navajo kinship: "Mother and child are bound together by the most intense, the most diffuse, and the most enduring solidarity to be found in Navajo culture" (1975: 15). Then it is baked in a pit, which is symbolic of a woman's womb (earth=woman). After this, elders instruct the couple about the nuances of married life and everyone partakes in the wedding feast (Locke 1976: 23). Aronilth, Wilson, 1991. Therefore, one may gage the healthiness and wealth of any given unit of Dine by the appearance of their sheep. are returned to diyinni in the form of offerings. Farella asserts the following about corn's importance: Zolbrod, Paul G, 1984. Pragmatic Implications: Mankind. -coyote important. 4 Other sources report that Changing Woman only made four original clans. Conclusion: If the Sun establishes the "standard" for paternity, it is one of primary disassociation and repeated distancing from his children. Reichard records a myth in which Talking God gives corn to Whiteshell Woman and her sister Turquoise woman, saying, "There is no better thing than this in the world, for it is the gift of life." and corn pollen are also the food of diyinni, and these (Reichard 1950: 29) a few songs one night, a ritual bath in yucca suds (1975: 33). Changing Woman created the original clans by rubbing off pieces of her epidermis in a symbolic manner. Their children are the twin heroes Monster Slayer (Naay' neizghn) and Child of Water (To bjsh chn), who cleared the earth of the monsters that once roamed it. Another point in Lincoln's text explains Changing Woman's conflation with corn and reproduction: "She called the people of the clans her children and promised them corn of all colors and plant seed; so now when corn doesn't grow and ripen, women, too, will not give birth, for all seeds and corn originate with White Shell Woman" (Lincoln 1981: 25), Metaphorical Implications: The language describing the bundle mirrors that describing Changing Woman; both make reproduction possible in a structured way. in Farella 1984: 83). Zolbrod, Paul G, 1984. Routledge Books. Corn is, first of all, diyinii Corn is, of course, She later appropriates the bundle for herself when she moves to the Sun's house in the West, where she creates the Dine and other objects of great importance to Dine livelihood (87). In some stories she has a sister, White Shell Woman (Yoolgai asdz), who symbolizes the rain clouds. The symbolism of the color yellow has been studied by Newcomb, Fisher and Wheelwright, who assert that yellow is "the color of the female wind and of the ripened harvest and the soft autumnal rain" (qtd. The latter term can be further divided into the Dine, the Navajo, and the ana'', or non-Navajos. lifeHe speaks of it as "our mother" because Changing on buckskin spread on the ground. The Sacred Ways of Knowledge, Sources of Life. are returned to diyinni in the form of offerings. It too is addressed "shim," and considered to be a protector. These are human maternal behavior (including the "coming of age" ritual for pubescent girls called Kinaald), the sacred mountain soil bundle (which ties into larger religious considerations), and the symbolism of sheep herding and the corn field (agriculture and sustenance). Moist earth is shoveled in to cover the batter, a fire is built up on top and kept going all night to bake the batter fully" (Lincoln 1981: 21). accumulation of property, insuring a long and happy away without the thing, which had made things firm, Book 2 The Hero Twins appear. their meanings provide the major conceptual framework by which they had life in them, which regulated the Zolbrod, Paul G, 1984. The fertility of motherhood is symbolized by corn pollen and yellow corn. In fact, Kluckhohn reports that a family has at least one h-zh--j' every six months. "It is not just a remembrance or reenactment of mythical time, nor is the singer just 'identifying' with the gods. Navajo Kinship and Marriage. The rite. conceived, the white corn giving birth to Talking nihima' (our mother), they refer to the Sun as "nihitah' A few steps remain after this, but most Dine consider the ceremony complete after the alkaan is distributed. 40 Changing Woman and the Hero Twins after the Emergence of the People (Navajo) 52 The Coming of the Spanish and the Pueblo Revolt (Hopi) 56 Iroquois or Confederacy of the Five Nations (Iroquois) 59 Raven and Marriage (Tlingit) 64 Raven Makes a Girl Sick and Then Cures Her (Tsimshian) 67 The Literature of Discovery and Exploration The Dine consider the hogan to be "a living entity, with the smokehole as its breathing hole; this is where prayers emerge and raise to the heavens" (Griffin-Pierce 1992: 92). Purity and Danger. I am here, I am White Shell Woman, I am here. and corn pollen are also the food of diyinni, and these Changing Woman was irritated and said "your father is a round cactus then. Kluckhohn and Leighton report that there are "exceedingly few violations of these prohibitions," for "Navahos treat incest of this sort and witchcraft as the most repulsive of crimes" (1946:112). One myth of Changing Woman's infancy insists that she was fed corn pollen to have the "power of regeneration" (17). These three scholars further assert that corn pollen, which is also yellow, is the "element which brings peace and plenty, long life, and security" (17). In this section their symbolic implications will be explored in the larger framework of Dine subsistence and economics. 2 For a classification of ceremonies, consult Reichard 1950: 314-337. (1984:30) "It is not just a remembrance or reenactment of mythical time, nor is the singer just 'identifying' with the gods. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Therefore, the Navajo social structure is modeled on this view of the cosmos. Changing Woman, after the earth had been made safe for humans, talked long and earnestly with her older son and finally dispatched him to the permanent flint home she and his father had prepared for him. said First Man. Witherspoon comments, The corn's birthing process is similar to that of Changing Woman and Whiteshell Woman delivering Monster Slayer and {Water Child}. Corn is, first of all, diyinii Corn is, of course, in Witherspoon 1975: 17).7 When the twins Monster Slayer and Born for Water needed help to say the monsters, they approached the Sun, their father, and asked for his aid. One myth of Changing Woman's infancy insists that she was fed corn pollen to have the "power of regeneration" (17). In Dine culture, sharing food is a symbol of solidarity between relations and friends (Witherspoon 1975: 88). Once the girl finds a suitable mate, then his family gives her family gifts of jewelry, livestock, or other goods (Locke 1976:22). Mothers and the Female Experience: Language and Art in the Navajo Universe. Mankind. 7 Please see Witherspoon's chart on color in Appendix A. Symbolism of Sheep: in Farella 1984: 79-80). Furthermore, her progression from old age to youth is marked by her visit to four different rooms, each located in a cardinal direction. There are two types of hogans: a female hogan with a round top, used for living and ceremonies, and a male hogan with a forked top, which is used for a sweat house (Beck 1992: 287). Witherspoon asserts that these terms have two broad definitions: a set of relationships that revolves around the act of giving birth; and a set of behavioral codes defined by "the generous giving of both physical and emotional sustenance" (94). John Farella asserts that the sacred bundle is more than just a provider of luxuries. This she rubbed (on 5 There is no equivalent for males in Navajo culture. Harvard UP. 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